Please read below and reply to the discussion with your opinion. No citation is needed. 

Size or accuracy of data are not the only issues that decision makers and data scientists should look out for when conducting data analyses. It is proven that people’s own misjudgment, expectations, beliefs, confidence levels, and pressure to conform to bosses’ wishes are issues to look out for when assessing the integrity and ethical process of the analysis. When handling data it is important to stay neutral and avoid prejudice in order to achieve honest, accurate results. In chapter 15, the author discussed some of the issues (or “cognitive traps” as he calls it) that might have a negative impact in data analysis.  

 

Issues

The confirmation trap – Sometimes we start analyzing data that aligns with our beliefs and ignore data that contradicts them. This is called the confirmation trap and is one of the biggest issues when data driven results are needed. This issue wrongfully narrows down or limits the number of variables that may influence outcomes. Sometimes it may arise from subordinates’ desire to please bosses or higher executives since employees know what they expected or wanted results are. This practice avoids basing the analysis on empirical evidence and brings bias as a consequence.

The overconfidence trap – When senior decision makers have a history of promotions based on past successes, they might develop overconfidence. Although confidence is wanted in order to achieve higher results, overconfidence may have a different effect. It can lead decision makers to only value their way of doing things and dismissing other methods or approaches. If this issue worsens, it may also result on the decision maker underestimating others’ work, experience, skills, results, and only valuing their own.

The overfitting trap – This issue arises when relationships between two variables are highly pursued or exploited to “overfit” one another. This is an issue since the analysis is so focuses on the variables being observed that it might dismiss other variables or correlations. In the worst scenario, overfitting might cause you to miss or overlook important data or underlying relationships that are relevant to the analysis.

 

Lessons learned

Heuristics are methods, strategies or procedures that are developed from prior experience in dealing with a similar problem. Unlike machines, people not always stay neutral when working with data and might conduct their entire data gathering/analysis process based on undesired, opinionated ideas. This takes away the honest procedural way of conducting data research, which is starting with data and reaching to a result. Heuristics might cause data scientists to work backwards by starting with a result in mind and trying to do everything to make it “fit” to the available data.

Pressure is a strong motive for employees to use heuristic methods in order to satisfy employers’ expectations. Employees might feel the need to content their superiors’ by affirming their ideas on results or outcomes. Sometimes, handling data in a dishonest data corresponds to employees’ desire to earn a higher salary or bonuses if the results conform to a plan or strategy drafted by the company.

Managers should take into account that data analyses might contain biases and should set a guideline in order to avoid them. Although some of these issues and bias inadvertently occur when conducting data analysis, management should also penalize intentional miss-handling of data in order to fit a personal purpose or need. Management should promote data-driven decision making and encourage neutralism when conducting research.

 

Best practices

Confirmation can be embraced by specifying in advance the analytical approaches that are going to be employed when conducting analyses. Also, actively looking for findings that disprove one’s beliefs might be a good way to avoid the temptation of agreeing with personal prejudices. The author suggests to not overlook or dismiss that fall below your threshold and to assign multiple teams to analyze the same data independently.

To avoid falling into the overconfidence trap, the author offers some procedural tips including the description of a perfect experiment. Before making a decision, a “pre-mortem” should be conducted in order to benefit from various perspectives and identifying potential flaws. Keeping track of predictions and comparing it to actual results is another approach that can help catch biases and prevent them from an early stage.  

Preventing the overfitting pitfall, one might divide data into two sets (a training set and a validation set), which are helpful in making predictions and raising flags. Checking the hypothesis before you jump into analyses is another way to keep the trail of what it is we are working with. Sometimes, it’s also important to construct alternative narratives in order to analyze whether there are other outcomes that arise from the same data.

 

Relation with Topics Covered in Class

These analyses relate to the topics covered in class since we tend to use data to our own benefit sometimes instead of following a neutral approach when conducting research. In the team projects we had to use data that were given to us and use it to arrive to results. If we were to include our own judgmental opinions of how data fit to a certain idea, we would be including bias into our analyses and not reporting a genuine result.

 

Alignment of Concepts Described in the Chapter and Concepts Reviewed in Class

These concepts are similar to integrity. For example, in the case of overfitting, employees sometimes “cheat” in data analyses in order to arrive to a desired result instead of conducting an honest research. This is highly unethical and dishonest.

 

Chapter 22

Chapter 22 is a really brief, short chapter that describes how decisions don’t start with data. When people buy products or make decisions as to which company they’ll contract with, they need numbers and information in order to make a good choice, but there are other factors that also play a role. How well data is presented and how strongly this data is aligned with a story are key factors when appealing to an audience and make them interested in your product.

 

Issues

Sometimes companies have data availability, accurate methods, good techniques, and powerful data analytics. They show strong results backed up by data; however, they never seem to progress or achieve goals as they have strategized. What’s the issue then? It may have to do with the way they are portraying that data to outsiders of the company. People that work for the company may know the opportunity for growth and success in the company, but outsiders need a little bit more than numbers to trust in your company. The issues are the image presentation and the lack of a story telling approach in order to captivate investors, creditors, potential partners, or consumers.

 

Lesson Learned

Although data is helpful at supporting material, the author makes a strong point on how numbers don’t speak for themselves. Effective persuasion is needed when appealing to a group of people. Numbers are there as a way to support and back up your story or information; however, one should never just make a case based off numbers only without including emotional power.

 

Best Practice

Data provides insights and offers and deliver deep understanding of relationships, outcomes, and trends. However, data does not convince or persuade others. People do. Therefore, it is important that people presenting data have strong communication skills, persuasion skills, and the ability to keep the audience interested in the story.

 

Relation with Topics Covered in Class

We have seen in past discussions how data may influence marketing. This applies when advertising. Even though people rely on numbers and facts, people don’t really buy products just because there is data backing up the information. People buy products when they feel it has a deeper meaning, connection, or emotional relation attached to it. We see how commercials use communication and emotional appeals in order to persuade potential buyers, attract a greater costumer base, and generate higher profits.

 

Alignment of Concepts Described in the Chapter and Concepts Reviewed in Class

In our team cases, we not only had to provide numbers, outlines, and excel reports, but we also had to speak from a sympathetic standpoint in order to attract the attention of PLE. We used recommendations as a way to persuade them in one direction or another, and kind of tell them a story of how those numbers proved that the company could do so much better in the future if some steps were taken.

 

Assignment: Developing a Program Evaluation

To ensure the success of a program evaluation, a social worker must generate a specific detailed plan. That plan should describe the goal of the evaluation, the information needed, and the methods and analysis to be used. In addition, the plan should identify and address the concerns of stakeholders. A social worker should present information about the plan in a manner that the stakeholders can understand. This will help the social worker receive the support necessary for a successful evaluation.

To prepare for this Assignment, identify a program evaluation you would like to conduct for a program with which you are familiar. Consider the details of the evaluation, including the purpose, specific questions to address, and type of information to collect. Then, consider the stakeholders that would be involved in approving that evaluation. Review the resources for samples of program evaluations.

By Day 7

Submit the following:

• A 1-page stakeholder analysis that identifies the stakeholders, their role in the agency and any concerns that they might have about the proposed program evaluation
• A 2- to 3-page draft of the program evaluation plan to submit to the stakeholders that:
  • Identifies the purpose of the evaluation
  • Describes the questions that will be addressed and the type of information that will be collected
  • Addresses the concerns of the stakeholders that you identified in your Stakeholder Analysis

 

This week students will complete an APA paper to address the following case study.

Mr. Corley Case Study:

Walter and Sheila Corley were married on January 20, 1984.   At the time, they lived in Texarkana, Arkansas.   Their son Jerry was born in July 1985.   Later that year, the Corleys separated and were divorced.   Sometime thereafter, the Corleys reconciled and resumed living together, holding themselves out to others as a married couple.   In February 1988, the Corleys moved to Mr. Corley’s hometown of Ferriday, Louisiana.   The Corleys were remarried in December 1988.

Neurofibromatosis, a disease of the peripheral nerves of the body, is a condition marked by the presence of numerous neurofibromas, which are tumors or growths arising from the Schwann cells which form the covering membrane or sheath of a nerve fiber.   Persons with neurofibromatosis frequently have café au lait spots of varying sizes on their bodies as well.   In addition, people afflicted with neurofibromatosis experience a significantly increased risk of developing cancer.

In 1978, Mr. Corley was diagnosed with neurofibromatosis and had four neurofibromas removed from his head, arm, hip and leg by a physician in Texarkana.   Thereafter, a few months prior to his return to Louisiana in 1988, Mr.  Corley, who had no other known health problems, began experiencing low back pain.

On February 11, 1988, Mr. Corley sought medical treatment from Dr. Maurice Gremillion, a family practitioner in Ferriday.   On that date, Mr. Corley complained that he had been experiencing low back pain and abdominal discomfort for approximately four months.   He also noted that he had intermittent right shoulder pain and trouble sleeping.   At Mr. Corley’s request, Dr. Gremillion ordered a total work-up which included x-rays of the lower spine, chest, kidneys and gall bladder, as well as an upper GI series.   Dr. Gremillion also prescribed Flexeril, a muscle relaxer, and Anaprox, an anti-inflammatory pain medication.   Dr. Gremillion, feeling that Mr. Corley should be seen by a specialist, then gave him a written referral to E.A. Conway Medical Center in Monroe for an orthopedic evaluation.

E.A. Conway, which is part of the L.S.U. system, is a teaching facility staffed by permanent, full-time physicians as well as by doctors who are employed on a temporary, rotating basis as interns and residents following their graduation from medical school.   The general operating procedure of E.A. Conway at the time of Mr. Corley’s presentment was that all new patients, even those who have referrals to a specific service or department, first go through the emergency room.   At that time, a patient is charted and evaluated by an emergency room physician.   From there, the patient is either treated or referred to a specific clinic for further follow-up.   In most cases, patients see different doctors each time they report to the hospital or one of its clinics.

On March 2, 1988, Mr. Corley, accompanied by Sheila Corley, reported to the E.A. Conway Emergency Room. The Corleys presented admitting personnel with all of Mr. Corley’s records from Dr. Gremillion, including the x-rays and other test reports.   Dr. Bruce Fuller, an emergency room physician, took a history from Mr. Corley and reviewed Dr. Gremillion’s notes and the x-ray reports.   He also conducted a routine physical examination and had x-rays made of Mr. Corley’s low back.   Notwithstanding the presence of several growths and café au lait spots on Mr. Corley’s back and torso, Dr. Fuller was unaware that his patient had neurofibromatosis.

Dr. Fuller found everything to be within normal limits and it was his impression that Mr. Corley was suffering from low back pain based on minimal subjective complaints of pain.   Dr. Fuller continued Mr. Corley on the medication prescribed by Dr. Gremillion and made an appointment for him with the Orthopedic Clinic on March 16, 1988.

On that date, Mr. Corley was seen in the Orthopedic Clinic by fourth year resident McIntyre Bridges.   Dr. Bridges does not recall looking at or reading the x-rays or reports from Mr. Corley’s previous examinations.   Dr. Bridges conducted a physical exam, which was normal, and started Mr. Corley on a conservative course of treatment for low back pain.   Dr. Bridges’ notes from this date indicate his awareness of Mr. Corley’s neurofibromatosis.

Mr. Corley was next seen on April 20, 1988 by Dr. David Mehta.   At the time, Dr. Mehta was doing a surgical internship and was rotating through the Orthopedic Department.   Dr. Mehta’s notes reflect that his physical exam of Mr. Corley was normal, but that he felt that Mr. Corley had a posture problem and referred him to physical therapy for correction of his posture.   Again, the notes do not reflect whether Dr. Mehta reviewed any of Mr. Corley’s previous medical records, x-rays or reports.

On September 14, 1988, Mr. Corley was seen by fourth year surgical resident Keith White.   On that date, Mr. Corley noted that his pain had worsened and was occasionally affecting his walking.   Dr. White’s examination yielded no objective findings of low back pain, but he did notice several café au lait spots indicative of neurofibromatosis so he ordered a CT scan of Mr. Corley’s low back to rule out any neurofibroma changes in the nerve roots.   Dr. Ellis, a radiologist at E.A. Conway, interpreted the CT scan as showing arthritis consistent with fibrosis or spinal stenosis and possible edema of the right L-5 nerve root, which, according to Dr. White, may or may not have been the cause of Mr. Corley’s back pain.   As with Drs. Bridges and Mehta, Dr. White did not review any of the previous medical records, x-rays or reports.   Mr. Corley’s last visit to E.A. Conway was September 21, 1988.   On that date, Dr. White reviewed the results of the CT scan with Mr. Corley, continued him on an anti-inflammatory drug and encouraged him to continue his back exercises.   Dr. White instructed Mr. Corley to return to the clinic in three months.

Thereafter, on October 26, 1988, Mr. Corley, plagued by constant back pain and beginning to experience difficulty breathing, consulted Dr. Rick Maxwell, a chiropractor, who did a full spinal x-ray which revealed a markedly diminished right lung area.   Dr. Maxwell sent Mr. Corley to his father, also a chiropractor, who confirmed that there was a potential problem with Mr. Corley’s right lung and recommended that he see a pulmonary specialist.

On October 31, 1988, Mr. Corley presented to Dr. Gremillion complaining of chest congestion and shortness of breath.   Dr. Gremillion diagnosed him with bronchitis and implemented treatment accordingly.   Mr. Corley returned to Dr. Gremillion on November 14, 1988 with complaints of shortness of breath and marked weight loss.   Subsequent diagnostic testing confirmed the presence of a very large mass in Mr. Corley’s right chest.

Prior to his death on January 23, 1990, Mr. Corley received radiation and chemotherapy treatment at LSU Medical Center in Shreveport.

Corley v. State Department of Health Hospitals. http://caselaw.findlaw.com/la-court-of-appeal/1071352.html

Student should address the following questions regarding this case in an APA paper

1. What are the facts of the case? This should include: what do we need to know, who is involved in the situation, where does the ethical situation take place, and when does it occur?
2. What is the precise ethical issue in regards to autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, fidelity, and justice?
3. Identify the major principles, rules, and values of the case.  Values are sets of beliefs about good and bad, right and wrong, and about many other aspects of living and interacting in the society with others. A principle is a personal rule that governs personal behavior. A rule is generally imposed by a figure of authority, and used to guide and govern people.
4. Is there legal ground for this case, if so what? Who is at fault? What legal action should be taken?
5. Are there alternatives to the actions completed in this case by both the patient and healthcare facility? Do you feel the physicians were following hospital protocol?
6. If you were a member of the ethics committee at this facility, what actions or changes would you recommend changing? Why?

For the case study, an APA formatted paper should be used, and needs to include a title page, level headings, references and citations. This assignment should include at least 2 references and should be at least five pages in length. Students should address the proposed questions providing ample detail, examples, and additional support.

Assignment Expectations:  

• Length:
  • answers must thoroughly address each question in a clear, concise manner; complete answers will likely take 5-6 pages
• Structure:
  • reference page required
  • address each question in a numbered list
• References:
  • Two references required
• Format:
  • save your assignment as a Microsoft Word (.doc or .docx), Open Office (.odt) or rich text format (.rtf) file type

   

Learning Objective:

Explain the ethical, cultural, economic, and social issues impacting the care women receive before, during, and after pregnancy. Understand how these issues can affect the health of women of childbearing age and their fetus in the United States.

Overview of Assignment:

Write a paper exploring the ethical, economic, cultural, and social issues that women of childbearing age face today in the United States. You can pick a topic that affects women in the childbearing stage of their lives and how it impacts the care received, their lives, their health, or the health of their fetus. Or you can explain each topic individually based on different topics. Overall, research how the ethical, economic, cultural, and social issues can impact women living in the United States. 

You MUST USE at least 6 scholarly sources to support your ideas, at least one for each consideration you are discussing.

Paper Requirements:

Length and Elements: The length of this essay should only be 3-4 written pages and should include:

1) Introduction with specific thesis statement (i.e. The purpose of this paper is to…Make sure to introduce the four issues you will be discussing in your paper)

2) Body of Paper: discuss each of the following considerations in separate sections with the following headings:

a. Ethical Issues—explore the ethical issues that surround and confront the childbearing women in the United States (DO NOT discuss informed consent as this is not the type of ethical issue I am looking for, look for issues related to abortion, IVF, genetic testing, ect.)

b. Economic Issues—consider the economic (money related) barriers women face, including such topics as: insurance coverage or lack thereof, WIC, money for food, Medicaid, rural access to childbearing services, etc.

c. Cultural Issues—discuss the various cultural norms that can be found among the different cultures of people and how these different cultural norms can impact the care received during pregnancy 

d. Social Issues—consider health disparities a person experiences due to their social environment such as women of poverty, women of color, Amish women, being an immigrant (legal or illegal), being rich, teenagers experiencing pregnancy, ect  in the United States. Relate these specific social considerations to childbearing women and how it affects maternal morbidity and mortality.

3) Conclusion: Summarize your findings; re-emphasize the thesis of the paper without simply repeating it; and do not introduce new ideas here

4) Use proper grammar, spelling, and APA 7th edition formatting including a title and reference page (the title and reference pages do not count toward the page total).

Please watch video   –    https://youtu.be/qMgPrZhpYnw 

1. The video is an animated presentation that describes the importance of organizational communication during a climate of change. A company must be diligent in keeping their stakeholders informed. In addition, a company must maintain a sterling reputation by having good relationships with their stakeholders.

   Use the Virtual Organization Portal (https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/cist/vop/index.html) to select a brick and mortar business or organization. The list of Virtual Organizations are found under Learning Activities.

   Note: Do not use an organization that is not listed in the Virtual Organization Portal.

   Write a 1,150- to 1,400-word descriptive framework of your chosen Virtual Organization. Include information from a real world organization that encountered a crisis that is similar to what your organization is experiencing. Review week two’s assignment’s instructions and select the type of crisis your company will be experiencing.

   Describe the following aspects of your Organization:

   • People
   • Employees
   • Clients/customers
   • Vendors
   • Tasks
   • Products or services
   • Describe your organization’s communication process
   • The structure of internal and external communication
   • The structural characteristics of formal communications between departments and senior management
   • Informal settings: board room, one-on-one meetings, texts, e-mails, and hallway/virtual chats, etc.
   • Computer mediated communications: extranets, intranets, emails, video conferencing, etc.
   • What backup systems would you recommend to be used when the main communication system fails?
   • Include a minimum of six references of which four are academic sources. Consider using textbooks/resources that you have used in your degree program. Most textbooks are not academic sources because they are not peer-reviewed.

     Format your assignment according to appropriate course-level APA guidelines.